Reflection

I truly enjoyed this class this semester. I really felt that this class is what the honors college should be all about. I really enjoyed the classroom environment. After a while you really felt like you got to know everyone in the class and the professor. I like how the class was mostly a collaborative discussion where everyone shared input and ultimately took out a lot of output knowledge. The class was a nice break from all my finance and accounting classes. I really liked working on the project with all its parts and then getting to see it completed at the end and share with the whole class.

Thanks for a great semester everyone and have a restful happy holiday winter break!!!

Ch 6 Tobacco and Death: When is a Cause Not a Cause?

Ch 6 Tobacco and Death: When is a Cause Not a Cause?

Situation: Millions of people have died a slow painful death from cigarettes and furthermore the tobacco industry knew about it.

Tobacco and Death vs. Challenger disaster:
the Challenger disaster was an obvious ethical lapse as seven astronauts died suddenly and violently in front of millions.

the Smoking disaster is quiet. Smoking kills individuals through lung cancer which leads to months of painful and progressive debilitation until death usually in a hospital witnessed only by nurses and a few family members.
Smokers life expectancy is also lowered from 10 to 20 years. (less concrete and emotional)

CAUSE:
millions of death due to lung cancer from smoking does not outrage us like the Challenger disaster because:
1) Probabilities and Populations rather than certainties and individual persons.
-causation is a direct and mechanical matter to people
-statistical causation--> a probability of what will happen to a population or group but says nothing about particular individual cases.
-w/ statistical causes, the immediate cause and effect is often not immediately seen and not intuitively obvious.
-
2) Causation from another angle (an unethical angle)
-The tobacco industry has engaged in an aggressive program of misinformation, obfuscation, denial, and opposition that has clouded the connection b/w smoking and disease in the minds of the public
-they have continually asserted that the existence of a "controversy" about whether smoking really "causes" disease, when in fact there was no controversy except of their own manufacture.

Statistics is one of the most important tools of medicine and public health in modern times, revealing the probabilistic causes involved in many kinds of diseases and disorders.

John Stuart Mill, one of the 4 methods of logical inference.
"concomitant variation" by which an increase in an independent variable leads to an increase in a dependent variable, and a decrease yields a decrease.
*even though the specific mechanism at work might not be known, we are justified in concluding that one causes the order.
EX) Son of an iron smith is strong.

-with statistics you never really prove anything, you only fail to disprove or disprove.
This is why most people know smoking is deadly and human caused "Global warming" and why other people are able to reject both.

tobacco industry is similar to sophists
sophists debated only to win and get what they wanted. They manipulated language to meet their own end. Our ethical judgments of them has been negative.
SOPHISTS"clever users of words to manipulate and deceive"-interested in winning arguments, prevailing in debates, and achieving favorable judgments for oneself-the techniques of the sophists as traditionally represented do seem to closely resemble those of the tobacco industry, and our ethical judgment of them is similarly negative-sophists insist that every topic has two sides worthy of argument, and their reputation for contention for the sake of contention and for the sake of thier self-interest

DOCUMENTS

-public witch hunt of the tobacco industry with lawsuits based on: damaging health effects, addictiveness, and advertising methods.
-Charges against Tobacco Industry (on an unprecedented magnitude):
fraud
conspiracy
negligence
false advertising
product liability
Industry:
-sophists causation used in their own self interest
-scientist who quibble on causation
-profitability which gives the industry huge amounts of resources.
Claimants:
-have few resources
-have limited time
-tobacco industry usually settles cases thus no precedent is every set for further cases
The Case:
The legal system as been building a case with tens of millions of pages of documents but they are hard to understand b/c the industry is:
-highly secretive
-closed
-guarded
so the documents are worded in obtuse and contorted ways to disguise their substance.
or,
-loopholes:
"They made sure all discussions about health research and about policy decisions were made in the presence of lawyers so that they could be hidden from discovery under the rules of lawyer-client privilege."
-hide "smoking guns"
"Files were purged and potentially incriminating documents were shredded" and the remaining documents were not indexed on lists to be discovered by claimants

1950s
-several reports linked smoking with lung cancer. (Dr. Wynder in the The Journal of the American Medical Association)
- Tobacco Industry took a defensive strategy based upon creating better public relations.
-their plan was to form a research group of "independent" scientist to to get the real facts.
1st causation - "there is no proof" which may be true but the ethical issue is how to represent this lack of absoluteness.
the RESULT:
-“A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers” published in all the major newspapers:
1st - it articulates a position central to the industry’s subsequent justifications of its activities (causation and proof have not been demonstrated
2nd - it shows frank disdain by the industry of scientific, medical, and technical research accepted by nearly all medical and scientific professionals outside the industry
3rd - it attempts to lay upon industry a mantle of scientific honesty and rigor that has been found to be false and deliberately misleading
* it is a technical documents that portrays the industry as the protector of public health and an authority on scientific rigor. (BIASED)

Victim Stance- is taken by the industry, but in reality the public is the victim. (this is popular sophistic method)

- 4 points in document
1st - lung cancer has many possible causes (doesn’t mention smoking was extremely common)
2nd - “no agreement among the authorities”
3rd - “no proof that cigarette smoking is one of the causes”
4th - conclusions drawn from statistics can be misleading or confusing


1960s
The US Surgeon General became involved and theTobacco Industry running out of reputable scientists willing to endorse them
- Nicotine is stated out right to be addictive
- Tobacco Industry principal interest is to protect itself over health of public (pg 170 excerpt).

1970s
- the use of filters?
would be admitting harmful health effects of smoking, tradeoff may be more desirable by public
- solution?
told public that it was done because of perception of public that smoking is linked to health problems
-pg 171 excerpt
Tobacco Industry “technical documents” "acknowledges" health hazard (misleading) then denies it based on "controversy".
- repeatedly claim that controversy and disagreement exist
- used "belief" in a deceptive, self-serving use
- public and government kept in the dark by (lawyer-client confidentiality)

1980s
- page 173 excerpt
"the intent here is to reinterpret or re-represent a scientific finding in such a way that would be less damaging to the industry"
- Control over information tightened even more to controlling the entire reporting process and whole documents
- Documents show J. K. Wells of B and W sent instructions for the purging of potentially incriminating files. unethical information control)
- Lawyer-client confidentiality was used all the time

1990s
- Secret documents come to light from whistleblowers and disenchanted insiders
- Tobacco Industry backed into a corner from private and public perspective
- Liggett Group (Major Tobacco Company) admitted nicotine was addictive but other tobacco companies distance themselves away from it.
- States start suing Tobacco Companies successfully

A SINGLE WORD
- Management says they don't "believe" nicotine is addictive, but documents appear that indicate otherwise (management knew as well)
- because of the word believe the department of Justice did not pursue perjury.
- Industry defers to public health authorities by putting statements such as “Smoking causes cancer.” on boxes but not necessarily agreeing with the statements

GRAPHICAL IMAGES
- Words difficult to pin down regarding their meaning, interpretation, and ethical significance. Graphical Images are even harder (photographs, etc.)
- R.J. Reynolds: launched campaign geared towards children (ages 9 to 24) to smoke his brand of cigarettes after studies showed that most people were faithful to the first brand of cigarettes smoked
- David McLean (Marlboro Man) was forced to smoke up to five packs of Marlboros a day in order to get the right advertising effect
- Graphical images also used to teach children about the harmful effects of smoking

ETHICAL APPRAISAL
Aristotle.
does not approve of the tactics used by the Tobacco Industry. The industry was unethical and was dishonest in their debate for why smoking is not unhealthy. Debate was pointless because the truth of whether smoking cigarettes is harmful to one’s health is already apparent.
Kant.
tobacco documents are clearly unethical because they do not act in a manner which could become a universal principle applying to everyone. The Tobacco Industry has not treated everyone in a way which they would want to be treated. They have continually opposed those working for the public good for the benefit of their industry. Utilitarian.
Utilitarian perspective weighs cost against benefits. Question is to whom? The Tobacco Industry’s plan follows that idea; however, few people outside the industry would view it as ethical.
Feminist Perspective and Ethics of Care.
Industry are unethical because they are impersonal corporations driven by their own goals and do not care that many people die a slow, painful death as a result of smoking.

Ch 8 Ethics Exercises

Ethics Exercises:

CASE ONE: LASER GLITCHES

Discussion

Variation

APPRAISAL,

CASE TWO: FREEDOM

Variation

discussion

APPRAISAL,

CASE THREE: CONFIDENTIALITY

Variation

APPRAISAL,

CASE FOUR: BURIED INFORMATION

APPRAISAL,

CASE FIVE: WHISTLE-BLOWING

APPRAISAL,

CASE SIX: GOVERNMENT ETHICS

Discussion:

APPRAISAL,

Ch 7 Star Wars; Hope vs. Reality

Ch 7 Star Wars: Hope vs. Reality

Star wars or Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

what was it? A missile defense system designed by the U.S. government. The Rumsfeld Commission found a real thereat from "rogue states" in the near future.

important to know:
The SDI program was never was deployed and so much of the technical communication about the software had to do with prospective future and not the real present.
so... the technical communications-and the technical communicators behind them-therefore had to speculate about what would develop in their field rather than simply presenting objective information about existing devices. (most technical communication is aimed toward achieving future goals.)

it gave the U.S. public hope against the fear of nuclear attack, but this hope was based on unrealistic technical possibilities.

not unethical
more ethically responsible to have consulted more thoroughly with recognized technical and scientific experts on the feasibility of SDI.
The claims for the effectiveness of SDI intermixed past and present technical reality with future goals and wishful expectations.

___________________________________________
claims for the the Star Wars system were:
-exaggerated
-selectively represented
-misrepresented

technical communication:
-vague
-misleading

why?
because they were dealing with the hopes and speculations, not realistic expectations

CONTEXT

OVERVIEW OF SDI

A Complex System

CONGRESSIONAL OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
The report presents four "misapprehensions" regarding the stated goals of the president's plan:
1) Individual, seperate devices such as lasers are not the same as the total system in which they would be used together, whcih would be extremely complex.
2) SDI is unlike any prior technical program such as the Manhattan project.
3) Hopes for entirely new technologies cannot be realistic. "Such breakthroughs are not impossible, but theri mere possiblity does not help in judging the prospects for the perfect defense"
4) Accurate predictions canot be made about hte performance of this complex system. There is, and can be, no realistic test of the system beforehand; all posssible outcomes cannot be anticipated.

The chapter on software draws these three conculsions from a total of eight:
1) The nature of software and our experienceswith large, complex softward systems, including weapons systems, together indicate that there would always be irresolvable wque3stions about how dependable the BMD software was, and also about the confidence to be placed in dependability estimates.
2) No matter how much peactime testing were done, there would be no gurarantee that the system would not fail catasrophcially during battle as a result of a software error. Furthermore , experience with large, complex software systems that hvae unique requirements and use technology untested in battle, such as a BMD system, indicates that there is a significant propbability that a catastrophic failure caused by a softward error would occur in the system's first battle.
3) No adequate models exist for the development , production, test, and maintenance of software for full-scale BMD systems.

CONGRESSIONAL HEARING

SDI DOCUMENTS, PRO AND CON

Pro

Con

Parnas

STAR WARS BOYCOTT PLEDGE:

Patriot: Small-Scale SDI

Technical Claims about Air Operations

ETHICAL APPRAISAL:

Aristotle.


Kant.

Utilitarianism

Feminist Perspective and Ethic of Care.

CONCLUSION:

pg 303-334

The Basics of a Cover Letter

Steven Graber

Your cover letter is a marketign tool!
It allows you stand out and intice the reader.
- too many are just an additional piece of paper

to be effective: you must act as an advertisment, attract an employer's attention by highlightng the most attractive features of the product.

have a nice sales pitch.

Both format and content are important.

FORMAT:

1st impression is appearance.

The parts of a Letter:
proper format = credible candidate.
2 styles:
Business style: (Block Style) vs. Personal Style.
only difference is in business style where all elements begin at the left margin vs. centerline and indented paragraphs.

Return Address:
your address should appear on top margin, w/o your name, (flush left or centered depending on style)
-avoid abbreviations.
-include your phone number

Date:
2 lines belwo the return address (flush left or centered depending on style)

Inside Address:
4 lines beneth the date, give addressee's full name.
give personal title
company's name,
company's address,

Saluatation:
2 lines beneth the company's address. beginning dear mr./ms. (last name):

Length:
3-4 short paragraphs.

Enclosure:
enclosure line used for formal or official ocrrespondences. Not wrong to use it (not necessary)

Paper Size, Paper Color and Quality:
standard 8 1/2 by 11 inches, has a nice weight and texture, white or ivory color.

Typing and Printing:
word processor with a letter quality printer.
Envelope:
standard business-sized envelope matching your stationery.


CONTENT

Personalize Each Letter
try and determine the person you are writing the letter to. Contact the head of the department in which you are interested.

Mapping it Out
3-4 paragraphs. (don't repeat what is in the resume). Goal: give an overview of your capabilities and show why you're a good candidate for the job. To distinguish yourself highlight 1 or 2 of your accomplishments)

First Paragraph
state the position for which you are applying.

Second Paragraph
indicate you could contribute to the company and how your qualificatons will benefit them.

Third Paragraph
show how you not only meet but exceed their requriements.

Fouth Paragraph
close by saying you look forward to hearing from them.

Complimentary close
2 lines beneth the body of the letter, aligned with your return address and date. Keep it simple!

don't forget to sign it!

TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL COVER LETTERS

What Writing Style is Appropriate?
polite, formal style with a balance of confidence in yourself and respect for the employer.
should be clear, objective, and persusaive.

-Tone: Reserved Confidence Is Always in Style

-Emphasize Concrete Examples

-Use Powerful Language
your language should be hard hitting and easy to understand.

Avoid Catchprases
may be tempted, but avoid. pg 311

Mention Personal Preferences?

Proof with Care


COVER LETTER BLUDERS TO AVOID

Unrelated Career Goals
tailor your cover letter to the position you're applying for.

Comparison and Cliches
avoide them! b/c they distract from your letter's prpose.

Wasted Space
only 4 paragraphs so every word and sentence needs to count.

Form Letters
don't mass mail a form letter to a large number of employers.

Inappropriate Stationery
only white and ivory paper color. No graphics

"Amusing" Anecdotes
imagine an interview setting. You don't know your interviewer, don't joke

Eroneous Copany Information
verify the accuracy of any copany information

Desperation
sound determined not desperate.

Personal Photos
never include, unless for performing

Confessed Shortcomings
never emphasise your flaws rather trhan your strengths.

Misrepresentation
always stick to the facts, misrepresentation can lead to dismissal.

Demanding Statement
demonstrate what you can do for the employer, not what he or she can do for you.

Missing Resume
fatal mistake not including all materials you refer to.

Persoan Information
do not include: age, health, physical charactersitics, marital status, race, religion, political, moral beliefs. Only list things relevant!

Choice of Pronouns
using 1st person Iis preferrable

Tone Trouble
to find: read your cover letter, after each sentence ask "does this statement enhance my candidacy?" have a 2nd person ready your letter

Gimmicks
dont use, conventional cover letter is best.

Typographical Errors
easy to make errors (misspelling, forgetting to change info)
easy to be instantly rejected.

Messy Corrections
always retype in case of error.

Omitted Signature
dont forget to sign!

COVER LETTERS FOR SPECIAL SITUATIONS
there are numerous situations. so always emphasize your strengths.

RESPONSE TO A "BLIND" ADVERTISEMENT
do not list employer information. so... your letter should tell of your knowledge and qualifications.

COLD LETTERS
Where you directly contact potential employers w/o referral or previous correspondence.

BROADCAST LETTERS
candidates can advertise their availability totop-level professionals in a particular field. Candidate intends to intice the potential employer to consider their impressive qualifications for available positions.

LETTER TO AN EMPLOYMENT AGENCY
They provide sercies to a weide range of job-seekers (mainly for clerical or support staff). The letter focus on who you are, what type of position you seek, in what industry, your strongest skills. Mention preferences.

LETTER TO AN EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRM
They mainly recurite candidates for client companies, but you can still write in. This can alert the recuriter of your availabilty. Highlight yourself and list your preferences.

NETWORKING LETTERS
They refer to a 3rd party contact to garner the reader's attention and induce him or her to assist you in your job search.
Tone: if not very familiar, tone as business like.

THANK YOU LETTERS
Is a must. Handwrite on a note card. Typed letter is always safe.
proofread and send promptly.

Your Resume On the Internet

Margaret Riley Dikel and Frances E.Roehm

Part 5: pg 275-305 Harty - Resumes

Part 5:


recruiting managers are the toughest audience

* they all differ!



with resumes and cover letters the reader quiclkly glances over for:

-written & oral communication skills

-computer skills

-interpersonal skills

-self reliance and initaitve

-a sense of what the world and work demands

-specific skills

-a sense of business/personal ethics

-time mgt

*you are not expected to excel in all areas!



like all writing, all the formating and and techniques in world will not make up for the message!

it is the message that is most important.

you can have the best looking resume in the world but it has to have the "message"



what is the message for a resume?

the reason the people reading are reading them.

!what can the candidate do for us?!!!



Why use a resume?

purpose is to convey a message!

**there are tons of conflicting advice***



Giving your message?

your language is "I want"

employee language is "I need"

to be effective you can create resues and letters in your language that will be read by employers in theirs.



learn as much about the industry as possible so that you will be better able to understand the company needs and ways in which you could be helpful.


Even if you are going to approach the employer in person, practice writing a letter

Focus on the interviewer's needs, not your wants

The Importance of Knowing what the job is all about:
using prose can help you put into words the things you want to convey to the interviewer



LETTERS OF APPLICATION

hard to figure out

Resumes should be well organized, neat, professional-looking and free of grammatical errors

Paragraphs should outline who you are and what you want, why you wrote to the employer and areas of mutual interest, special talents, and should suggest a course of action

Hard Work and Attention to Detail Make ofr a Good Letter
Editing and rewriting is very important

Don't Delegate the Job of letter writing
Write your own letter, and use an outline

-The value of a resume is often in the practice more than the document itself






__________________________________________________

RESUME PREPARATION


-Using single spacing can draw less attention to less-than-impressive items

-Organize your qualifications into relevant groups and be sure to have a good reason for including a qualification or work experience

Nancy Jones- A Good Resume Made Better
fig 2 pg 288


Janet Smith- The Proper Use of Headlines
fig 4 pg 293
she needs to describe what she did so they can tell about her qualifications.
Key, Act like a newspaper editor.


Mark Meyers- The Functional Resume
Mark Meyers got the job because he created a resume based on function pg 299 fig 5

Covnetional way may be problematic
Meyers wanted to emphasis his public relations and promotion experience.

Preparing a Resume for a Specific Job
they should cater to the employee and what they are looking for and how you can meet those needs. You may have to adapt and think outside the box.


Bruce Gregory Robertson- A Resume Reflecting an Active Mind and Body
Employers look at Potential! Not what they know but what they can learn!

pg 300

Michelle Trio- The Curriculum Vitae
The course of life in Latin.
It is a resume for academic positions and as such does not need a statement of goals or interest.

Focus on employer needs (Same)
but employers are not just looking to hire people who can teach, but rather who bring prestige to the program!

The Job Objective
a resume should open with an objective

CAREER INTEREST is a good title for this section because it leads directly to the purpose
pg 303

One Page or Two?
1 page is preferred if at all possible

Additional Advice About Resumes
f-test it out
-have freinds read it
(especially if that friend is in the industry you are applying for)
ask:
what qualifications does this person have
what do you see these people doing with these qualifications
what kind of employer would want to hire this person
does the resume project an image of a certain kind of person.

Multimedia Ideas

For Kyle and my multimedia component of our final website project, I thought about shooting video and pictures of things pertaining to Clemson Tailgating.
some ideas of videos:
-different tailgates/atmospheres
-activities
-Clemson traditions ex) Alma Matter, cadence count, etc
-cooking clips with tips

Nazi Records; Dombrowski pg 81 - 120

The Nazi conducted tons of terrible experiements on Jews and other peoples that the Nazi party decided to exterminate. The terrible evil displayed was cause for a new word Genocide to be created to express the events.



Point of the Nazi examples? -to show how the values embedded in the scientific frame of mind can be carried to extremes and taken too far. Our role as writers is to write with ethics, very few people are involved with making sure that science does not go too far. Science also justifies itself by saying that experiments are done for the sake of science. Science can be either seen as abiding by overall ethics or creating its own ethics.

• Whenever technical objectivity is emphasized, sometimes ethics are then compromised.


• it is therefore that, technical documents are not as ethically neutral as you might think.


• The Nazi "scientific" research on prizoners is in quotations b/c
  1st it indicates the claim by the researchers that the research was scientific in nature.
  2nd it indicates that nearly all the research is now understood of being w/o genuine scientific puropose or valitidity. Its aim was actually reacial abuse and mass killing (not the pursuit of science)


• the Nazi "medical" research and human extermination technology was not really science for the sake of science, it was actually science subordinated to another value system (racial supremacy)


• In determining whether a document is ethical, you must consider the content, but also how and from where the information was obtained!

ORGANIZATION, DISSEMINATION, AND USE OF INFORMATION

reviews of : -Nazi racism, its relation to science and medicine, & its trial for crimes against humanity, and the -recent ethic debates about questionable scientific information from this regime.

purpose: to show that ethical considerations apply not only to dcoument itself or its content but also to how the informational content was obtained and how it likely will be used.

The Nazi concentration camps were originally used to remove socially undesirable people from the general population. Those in the concentration camps were also used as research subjects, without their consent. Most of the research was done to further their war effort by learning about human extremes.

Medical Specimens

• 
  
  some tissue samples that have been used in German medical schools originally were from Nazi concentration camp victims. Of course, no informed consent was used. Many Isrealis were outraged and protested to the German government. The means of how they were obtained outweighs the benefits of their use.

Research Information

• 
  
  Some information obtained by Nazi research may be benefical today; however, critics say that it should not be used at all. In the end some research was not used because it was not done with scientific methods. Barondress explained how the society allowed this to happen. First, the goal of medicine was reversed. Physicians also thought that they were doing good by removing the bad genes from the world, making it a better place. In addition, many physicians were strong Nazi proponents. People were also allowed to be killed because valueable resources were limited because of the war. Medical terminalogy also helped doctors to accept their role and also make society believe it too.

Controversy in the Present

• 
  
  Due to the unethical “scientific” or pseudoresearch of the Nazi’s, scientific research in Europe and America is scrutinized much more closely by the government and objective panels.


• 
  
  Recently, the Israelis have protested that some universities in Germany are using human organs from the Nazi prison camps for research. They protest because these people did not have any informed consent or choice about this, not to mention there was no reason for their execution, and therefore it is unethical to use them.


• 
  
  The New England Journal of Medicine took a strong stance against using the hypothermia research of the Nazis even though there could be possible medical implications because the research was unscientific, gathered by unsound methods.


• 
  
  In Journal of American Medical Association Jeremiah Barondess stated that the there was a huge reversal that happened in the Nazi regime, from medicine as healing to medicine as killing. It became a means to justify and carry out mass genocide rather than aid in helping sustain life.

Values in Nazi Medical Science

• 
  
  Physicians held a lot of power in the Nazi regime. Reasons for this: the unemployment of medical school graduates in bad economy and the need for the regime to “legitimize” its foul practices.


• 
  
  Facts should be seen as things that can be severely altered by social circumstances and are not completely certain.


• 
  
  Masked language become prominent:


• 
  
  Physicians were seen as killing with reason when the people were seen as “already dead” or in other words “not worthy of life”


• 
  
  “Euthanasia” is known as mercy killing but is suppose to be by the knowing consent of the person. The Nazi’s termed their killing as “Euthanasia” but their people had no consent, no choice.


• 
  
  “Special treatment” is usually very strong treatment used in extreme cases with the purpose of still helping the person. The Nazi’s used this for mass killing.

Nazi Antiscience

• Some say that the “science” of the Nazi’s was indeed science and shows how its objectivity is inhumane and impersonal and the enemy of human values.


• Others argue that what the Nazi’s were doing was not at all science, but the exact opposite. They opposed traditional science and its objectivity, its formal logic, its emotional neutrality in order to bring about their desired end result.

oNazi Antiscience
People have also stated that science is to blame for its inhumaneness and unethicalness. For example, science allowing doctors to see their patients as objects. Nazi science also completely disagrees with what we would consider traditional human values. Also, many experiments were not done under traditional settings allowing many unethical events to take place. Many scientists in Germany were tired of the emperical ways of doing things. In the end, Nazi science stressed moral, aesthetic and political values over reductivism and objectivism, allowing there to be an unequality between people. Science's main duty is to make strong, healthy, dominant people.

Research in the United States

• There are strict standards that not only must the information of research be accurate but the means by which it was obtained must meet specific guidelines. If not, the evidence is inadmissible, no matter how “beneficial” it could be to society.


• An example if the Tuskegee syphilis experiment in the 1920s where only African American patients were treated with placebos and effective drugs.


• Another instance is the research of the effects of radiation on humans by the utilization of unknowing humans.


• Another point of controversy is the utilization of animals in research.

Research in the United States
Should Nazi research be used or is it admissable? Americans should also realize that the US ran similar experiements, for example the Tuskegee syphilis experiment. the problem is with the methods of the experiment, not with the results. The informaiton gained can be hampered by they way it was obtained. Kant says that ethics applies to everyone with concious thought, or those with reasoning.

Nazi Technical Memorandum

• Katz believes that expediency and efficientcy have dominated our society and thus changed it. In fact, technology could be said to be a determinant of society, for example the car. Nazi memo example. Nouns are not used and it is not focused on people. Subject line avoids stating the real purpose of the memo. In addition, the memo has excellent technical writing. Are writers required to examine ethics when writing? YES!! we are!! In fact, technical values were the main importance in Germany. These values made it difficult to justify the logic.Even graphics were used in their technical writing to identify Jews. Science was abanded to prove their points These graphics helped to distance the user from the subject and the science behind it.There was also pressure from the government to legitimize beliefs by showing that science agreed

How would the different schools of ethicial thought perceive the Nazis

• Aristotle would ethically disapprove the Nazis because everything that Aristotle believes that ethics is was completely absent. Also Aristotle believes in expediency, and technical excellence which can lead to problems


• Kant would ethically condemn Nazis because not everyone was treated equally


• Utilitarianism ad Feminist and Ethics of Care would have condemned the Nazis and would favor information over other.

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"The Ethics Tradition" pages 38 - 81

The Ethics Tradition 3 Theories:
1) Confucianism
2) Emmanuel Levinas
3) Bernard Gert

Aristotle:
Aristotle deals with virtue and personal character. He defines and explains basic notions such as goodness, truth, justice, and rightness as principles for guiding our conduct. He focuses on cultivating the disposition of the person rather than the behavior itself, Ethical because of actions over time not just one act-not idealistic, we are nevertheless creatures burdened with deciding how to act in a pragmatic, imperfect world-do not deliberate about matters of science and technology-the highest principles find expression in the immediate, material realm.

Kant:
Kant deals with duty and obligation based on a fundamental universal principle-this principle explains that an action should be performed just because it is the right thing to do, regardless of its costs or benefits to us individually-strives for fairness and equality by showing that ethics can be understood by all people to apply equally to everybody-ethics to him is a deontology, an ethical system emphasizing obligation or duty-based on binding, absolute duty and obligation as they guide the application of a free will in executing what Kant calls the universal "categorical imperative" rule of ethics-only reasoning can grasp the unseen but metaphysically real principles that drive our actions, our sense, on the other hand, are too directly engaged with shifting appearances, confusing contingencies, and material satisfactions to allow them to derive any knowledge about our moral obligations, which are necessarily metaphysical-our distinguishing characteristic as humans in our reasoning ability, therefore it must serve as a basis for judging ethics-he asserts a radically autonomous free will bound by duty, coupled by reason with a radical individuality that is nevertheless one with the universal.

Relevance to Understanding the Ethics of Technical Communication
1) emphasizes a sense of duty, doing what is right regardless of competing interests or eventual outcomes.
2) conceptualizes ethics as both an individual and a social matter, or, more precisely, it defines one's personal ethical responsibilities in terms of a generic universal human being.
3) amounts to the Golden Rule; do unto others as you would have them do unto you*assumes nothing except that we are all rational beings.

Utilitarianism-
It weighs the consequences of costs of an action against benefits in order to calculate the most socially desirable course of action-treats people like somewhat interchangeable parts of the social machinery and insists on being unresponsive to the interests or feelings of individuals-"calculus" of ethics.

Feminist and Care Perspectives
Feminist Perspectives on Science as a Value System-feminist science would emphasize the whole organism and the entire interrelational social complex in which organisms fully live-men feel more comfortable thinking logically than women, hence more male science majors, etc.-be careful when using gender words in technical communication.

An Ethic of Care-
The Ethics urge other standards for making ethical decisions, such as caring concern and the quality of relationships-urge flexibility and sensitivity to the particulars of a given situation rather than insisting on inflexible, universal rules-relationships are of utmost importance-women generally emphasize caring concern, relationship, and the flexible application of values depending on the particular person and circumstance in rendering their ethical judgements.

Confucian Ethics-
Grounded in immediate realities rather than immutable, timeless absolutes-defines human responsibilities as being constituted in relationships, not in the isolation of a radical individual-insists on the subordination of individual egos to time-honored obligations of social relations and to the needs of social harmony.

Levinas-
Ethics is not an abstract or metaphysical system of principles, nor a rationally understood sense of duty, nor computational weighing of costs and benefits, nor a feeling of kindness towards others it is, rather, about our human nature relation with others.

Gert-
Morality is a public system applying to all rational persons governing behavior which affects others and which has the minimization of evil at its end, and which includes what are commonly known as the moral rules at its core.

outline to formal

Outline

Logical structure of the document:
Which is similar to our problem statement and proposal

Logical structure helps you organize your thoughts


What causes writers to freeze up? The Blank Page
Why? b/c it is limitless with expectations

pg 207 - pg 274 Harty

Creating Visuals

_______________________

DESIGNING AND ITNEGRATING VISUALS WITH TEXT

plan what visuals you want to include and where before and while you are writing (even onto outline)
Guidlines
Why include your visual?- explain in text
Is the information in your visual accurate?- get from reliable sources
Is your visual focused?- only include necessary information
Is the visual consistent?- define in text, make sure follows text
Does your visual specify measurements and distances?- make sure to not units of measure ment
Is lettering readable?-
Is the caption clear?- captions must clearly describe the visual
Is there a figure or table number?- assign numbers if there are more than 5 visuals
Is a list of figures or tables needed? see above
Are visual numbers listed in text? Refer to visuals in text (ie see table three)
Are visuals appropriately placed?- place where they are talked about in text, if able
Do visuals stand out from surrounding text?

Tables
summarizes data in a brief space, can be numbers or letters
Components of tables:
table number
table title
boxhead- beneath title, states column headings
stub- left hand vertical column of table, lists items shown in body of the table
body- gives data
rules- used to separate table into various parts
source line- identifies where info was obtained
footnotes- used to explain items in table
continuing tables- repeat headings if table goes onto next page

Graphs
present numerical data in visual form
less accurate than tables
usually w/ tables for accurate numbers
Line graphs

shows the relationship btwn. two or more sets of info.vertical axis is amounts, horizontal axis represents increments of timeGuidelines for line graphs
give title that describes data clearly and concisely
indicate zero point
divide axises into equal portions
include enough points to plot to accurately depict data
try not to use gridlines
include key if necessary
include where info was obtainedtry to present data as accurately as possible, make sure proportions are accurate
Bar graphs

Illustrate different types of info. during different periods of time
quantities of the same kind of info. at different periods of time
quantities of different info. during a fixed period of time
quantities of different parts to make up a whole
Pie Graphs

information contained is general, and usually with by a bar graph How to make a pie graph
whole circle is 100%
begin at 12 o'clock position and sequence clockwise, from largest to smallest
use distinct colors or patterns for each wedge
keep labels horizontal and include percentage
make sure all wedges add up to 100%hard to read if there are more than five or six slices
Picture graphs

modified bar graphs, but hard to indicate exact numberstips for using picture graphs
use easy to understand symbols
have each symbol represent a specific number
show larger quantities by increasing the number of symbols not the size
Dimensional-Column Graphs

can cause confusion because too much information
Drawings

useful when audience needs to understand an object's appearancedrawings are best choice when need to focus on specific details, or for simple objectsGuidelines
show from point of view person will use it
show relationship to the largest system
draw in proportion
for a process, arrange from left to right and top to bottom
label important parts
Flowcharts

shows a step-by-step process, allows for understanding of process easilycan be in many formsGuidelines
use arrows to show directions between standardized blocks
label all steps
include key if applicable
do not crowd information in
Organizational Chartsshow various components of an organization
Maps

show specific geographical featuresguidelines
clearly identify all boundaries
eliminate unnecessary info.
include a scale
indicate North
emphasize key features
Photographs

show surface appearances or record events over time

________________________________________________________________

Strategies of Persuasion

RULES EVERY PERSUADER SHOULD KNOW:

work in predicable ways should be looked at during planning stage of writing and main body
has effect on choice of use, emphasis, reasons, and supporting material
vary by situation
1) consider whether your views will make problems for the readers

-if they do use tact and empathy
2) Don't offer new ideas, directives, or recommendations for change until your readers are prepared for them

- it depends on the audience's resistance to change, amount of change writer is asking for, whether the readers understand your understanding of the situation, and how much idea threatens their values. Must be more elicit and thorough when writing
3) Your credibility with readers affects your strategy

- two types of credibility given and acquired (given-position in organization, acquired- earned by thoughts and facts in written message)
4) If your audience disagrees with your ideas or is uncertain about them, present both sides of the arguement.
5) Win respect by making your opinion or recommendation clear
6) Put your strongest points last if the audience is very interested in the argument, first if it is not so interested- Last when interested to keep their attention
7) Don't count on changing attitudes by offering information alone-
8) Testimonials are most likely to be persuasuvie if drawn from people with whom the readers associate
9) Be wary of using extreme or "sensational" claims and facts
10) Tailor your presentation to the reasons for readers attitudes if you know them
11) Never mention other people without considering their possible effect on the reader.

Sizing Up Your Readers:
think of readers as real people, to help with this ask are they:
- deeply or mildly interested in the subject of your communication?
- familiar or unfamiliar with your views, competetance, and feelings about them?
- Knowledgable or ignorant of your authority in the area discussed, your status, and your associations of possible importance to them?
- Committed or uncommitted to a viewpoint, opinion, or course of action other than the one you favor in your letter, report, or other document?
- Likely or unlikley to find your proposal, idea, finding, or conclusion threatening or requireing considerable change in their thought or behavior
- Inclined or uninclined to think and feel the way they do abuot the subject because of identifiable reasons, prejudices, or experiences
- associated formally or informally with groups or organizations involved in some way with the idea or proposal you deal with?

_____________________________________________________

Proposals - Philip C. Kolin

Following guidlines to help you sersuade your audience to gain approval


* You should refer to this before and while you formulate your plan


1) Approach writing a proposal as a problem-solving activity.


- your goal is to solve a problem. It is important not to lose sight of this problem when you plan and write your proposal. Everything in your proposal should relate to the problem and the organizing should reflect your ability to solve the problem. (you need to make the reader feel confident taht you can solve the problem.


2) Regard your audience as skeptical readers.


- do not believe that your reader will automatically accept your plan as the best way (BE SKEPTICAL). Readers will naturally question everything you say. *They will w/h their approval if there are any errors.


Solution: appraoch your proposal from the reader's point of view...


3) Reserach your proposal carefully.


- readers demand hard facts and it is the facts that will wiegh most in your proposal success.


-Concrete examples persuade / unsupported examples will not.


4) Prove that your proposal is workable.


- the bottom line "will this plan work?" Thus your proposal should be well thought out and feesable for the organization (ex. 50 person company cannont triple workforce)


Solution - analyze and test each part of your proposal in advance to eleiminate any quirks


5) Be sure that your proposal is financially realistic.


- is it worth the money? Again is it feesable


6) Package your proposal attractively.

The appearance as well as the content of your proposal can determine whether it is accepted or rejected. To do this try and take advantage of any software programs dealing with desktop publishing available to you.





INTERNAL PROPOSALS:

primary purpose- to offer a realist and constructive plan to help your compay rut its business more efficienty and economically.

example: Figure 1 pg 245



You may discover a better way of doing something or a more efficient way to correct a problem.

typical problems at work focus on: money, personnel, outdated technology, health concerns, and organizational communications.



example: you observe a way to increase efficiency and save money, you can submit a proposal to your supervisor.



Many times employees may be afraid to suggest a solution because of fear of loosing their job. Toyota has a policy that no employee will lose their job, now often employees will find solutions, if these solutions replace the need for their job they will be rewarded and transfered to an area they can be more useful at.

generally proposals can be informal, in-house memos. Such in-house topics include: -purchasing new or more advance equipment (word processors, weapons (army police) -hiring new employees or training current ones to learn new stuff -eliminating a dangerous condition or reducing environmental risk -improving communication w/in b/w departments -revising a policy to improve customer relations

Your Audience and Office Politics writing an internal proposal requires you to be aware and sensitive to office politics. To be successful, you must write to the the needs and likes of your audience. again you can expect your audience to agree with you, you have to convince him.

obsticles: your boss may feel threatened by your plan or indifferent to it. solution: show the change proposed is in everyone's best interest don't overlook: that your proposal will probably have to travel up the ladder for approval which may mean working with your boss to put his name on it for extra creditbility.

before your write, - consider the implications (some change to your department may have a butterfly effect and potentially disruptive implications for another office or division within your company. thus, talk to your boss about it, produce a draft, then seek revisions and feedback.

NEVER, submit an internal proposal that relies on someone else to supply information, that pushes responsibility onto them because your proposal could be reject on basis of lack of concrete evidence.

The Organization of an Internal Proposal: straight forward plan from identifying the problem to solving it. Example Firgure 1 pg 250

Introduction: state why you are writing this, "I propose that . . ." , state why think a specific change is necessary, define the problem, emphasize your plan as the solution. (stress urgency of action when necessary ex. it is costing the company thousands of dollars a day)

Background oftheProblem: prove that a rpoblem exists by documenting its importance for your boss and company, (the more you show how it effects your boss, the more likely you'll persuade him) Avoid: vague, unsupported, generalizations ex) "we're losing money" Instead: use quantifiable details ex) "company is losing 1,857 $s/day"

Solution or Plan: describe the change you want approved and tie your solution directly to the problem. Give factual evidence, do not give just an outline with details that can worked out later. Supply Details and answere the questions: 1) is the plan workable-can it be accomplished here in house 2) Is it cost effective - will it really save us moeny in the long run or will it lead to more expenses

to get your boss to yes, supply the facts. Its good to also raise alternative solutions.

a proposal to change a procedure must include the following details: 1. how the new/revised procedure will work 2. how many employees or customers will be affected by it 3. when it will go into operation 4. how much it will cost the employer to change procedures 5. what delays or losses in business might be expected while while the company swithces from one procedure to another 6. what employees, equipment, or locations are available to accomplish this change.

your boss will be concerned about: schedules, working conditions, employees, mehtods, locations, equipment, and the costs. *The costs will be the utmost important so make sure there is an accurate budget.

Conclusion should be short (1-2 paragraphs), your intention is to remind the reader that the problem is serious, the reason for change is justified, and that the reader needs to take action. select the most important benefits and emphasize them again. Make sure in it you present yourself as open and willing to discuss it further.

_______________________________________________________________

Sales Proposals:

Most common type of external proposal. PURPOSE is to sell your company's products or services for a set fee. It is a marketing tool, and thus should include a sales pitch and detailed description of the work you propose to do.

examples, fig 2 & 3 pp. 252-256

Audience and its needs: The audience is usally one or more business executives having hte power to approve or reject a proposal. A diffrenece b/w an iteranl proposal is that your audience is going to be even more skeptical since they may not know you or your work and your proposal may be evaluated by experts. Evaluation of your work according to 1) how well it meet their needs and 2) how well it compares with the proposals submitted by your competitors.

Key to success? incorporating the "you attitude" throughout. Relate your product, services, or personnel to the reader's exact needs stated in the (Request for Proposal) or (through your own investigation). You CANNOT submit the same proposal for every job you want to win if you expect ot be awarded because differnet firms have differnet needs. MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION the reader will raise... "How does this proposal meet our company;s special requirments. OTHER QUESTIONS.... - does the writer's firm understnad our porblem? - Cna the writer's firm deliver what it promises? - Can the job be competed on time? - What assurances does the writer offer that the job will be done exactly as proposed? ((** YOu must answere these questions by demonstrating how your proudct or services is tailored to the customer needs.

Organizating a Sales Proposal:

has the following parts: intro, description of the proposed product or service, timetable, costs, qualifications of your company, and conclusion.

Intro: single paragraph to severla pages if more complex. It should prepare readers for what is to come.... it should include the following sections: 1. Statement of purpose and subject of proposal - tell readers why you are wrting and identify the specific subject of your work. 2. Background of the problem you propose to solve. - show readers that you are familiar with their problem and that you have a firm grap of the importance and implications of the problem.

Description of the Proposed Product or Service: (the heart of your proposal because before customers spend money they want to hard factual evidence of what you claim can and should be done. cover these points: 1. Carefully show your potenial customers that your porudct/service is right for them. 2. Sesvribe your work in suitable detail- what it looks like, what is does, and how consistently wand wll it will perofrm in the readers' place of work. 3. Stress any special features, maintaenance advantages, warranties, or service benefits.

Timetable: this shows that you know your job and can accopmlish it in time. Your dates should match those listed in the RFT. Provide specific dates

Costs: Budget should be accurate, complete, and convincing. A proposal if accepted is a binding legal agreement so it is important not to underestimate costs in hope to win the job. Give the reader more than the bottom line cost. Itemize costs for specific services (dosen't this create a nickle and dime situation?)

Qualifications of your company: emphasize your company and its accomplishments in relevant situatoins. NEver misrepresent your qualifications! (Don't fake it till you make it) Unethical and could be caught.

Conclusion: "The call to action" , encourage your reader to accept your plan. Stress the major benefits. Offer to be open and answere questions/concerns.

___________________________________________________________________

Richard Johnson-Sheehan

Writing Proposals with Style:

WHAT IS STYLE?

WRITING PLAIN SENTENCES

Guideline 1: The subject should be what the sentence is about At a very simple level, the readers cannot easily identify the subject of the sentence or the subject of hte sentence is not what the sentence is about. ex. pg 262

Guidline 2: Make the "doer" the subject

Guideline 3: State the action in the verb - Readers tend to ocus on who ro what is doing something in a sentence.

Guideline 4: Put the subject early in the sentence - subconsciously, readers start every sentence looking for the subject, b/c it tells the readers what the sentence is about. If it is in the middle the readers will have greater difficulty finding it, and thus the sentence will be harder to read.

Guideline 5: Eliminate nominalizations - Nominalizations are perfectly good verbs and ajectives that have been truned into akward nouns, ex) pg 264

Guideline 6: Avoid excessive perpositional phrases - Prepositional phrases are necessary, but overused and make writing too long and tedious.

Guideline 7: Eliminate redundancy - we use redundant phrasing in an effort to stress our points. ex) unruly mob, ex) we should collaborate together as a team, - they should be eliminated b/c they use 2 words instead of 1 for the same effect.

Guideline 8: Make sentences "breathing length" - a sentence is a statment designed to be spoken in one breath.

or, A Simple Method for Writing Plainer Sentences to sum up the 8 sentence guideline, just write out your draft as usual (not really paying attention to style), then as you revise, identify difficult sentences and apply these 6 steps: 1. Identify who or what the sentence is about, 2. turn that who or what into the subject, and hten move the subject ot an early place in the sentence., 3. Identify what hte subject is doing, and move that action into the verb slot. 4. Eliminate prepositional phrases, where appropriate, but turning them into adjectives. 5. Eliminate unnecessary nominaliatoins and redundancies. 6. Shorten, lengthen, combine, or divide sentences to make them breathing lenght.

example pg 267,

WRITING PLAIN PARAGRAPHS

The Elements of a Paragraph:

-Transition Sentence purpose is to make a smooth bridge from the previous paragraph to the present paragraph. most paragraphs don't need them

-Topic Sentence the claim or statement that the rest of the paragraph is going to prove or support. it is the most important sentence in any given paragraph

-Support Sentences if/then, cause/effect, better/worse, greater/lesser kinds of arguments intended to prove the claim made in the topic sentence

-Point Sentences usually restate the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph, especially useful in longer paragraphs but still optional

Aligning Sentence Subjects in a Paragraph -so each sentence in the paragraph stresses the same things

The Given/New Method -every sentence in a paragraph should contain something the readers already know and something new that the readers don't know. the given information should be early in the sentence and the new information should appear later.

When Is It Appropriate to Use Passive Voice?
when the readers do not need to know who or what is doing something in the sentence OR the subject of the sentence is what the sentence is about. passive sentences can often help you align the subjects and use given/new strategies. in scientific and technical proposals, the passive voice is often the norm because who will be doing what isn't always predictable.

Writing Process

Writing Process pg 15

worrying
planning
writing
revising
proofreading

Research - continues up to the end
Writing - consists of draft and rewriting

Audience Analysis: The Problem and a Solution - Mathes & Stevenson

Audience Analysis: The Problem and a Solution

what are the 3 fundamental components of communication?:
-writer
-message
*audience

what is the problem with report writers often?
-writer
-message
*they often ignore their readers b/c they are preoccupied w/ thier own problems & w/ the subject matter of the communication
=
poorly designed, ineffective report

inexperienced report writer fails to design report effectively
b/c
he makes several false assumptions about the situation

ASSoutUandME

the reporter writer should realize that:
1. it is false to assume that the person addressed is the audience.
2. it is false to assume that the audience is a group of specialists in the field.
what are these assumptions indicating about a writer?
- his lack of awareness of the nature of his report audience
3. it is false to assume the report has a finite period of use.
4. it is false to assume that the author and the audience always will be available for reference.
5. it is false to assume that the audience is familiar with the assignment.
what are these assumptions indicating about a writer?
- his lack of appreciation of the dynamic nature of the system
6. it is false to assume that the audience has been involved in daily discussions of the material.
7. it is false to assume that the audience awaits the report.
8. it is false to assume that the audience has time to read the report.
what are these assumptions indicating about a writer?
- his lack of consideration of the demands of day-by-day job activity

example on page 170
what false assumptions did the student make during her internship with auto company?

what is the value of a report?
-the extent to which it is useful to an organization

Dynamic situation of the report:
-used often someone other than who requests it
-may respond to a variety of needs within the organization
-diverse audience w/ different understandings of the report
-often used over a period of time
- there is constant change in an organization and so the report should be designed for a dynamic situation.

how school writing can contribute to the problem:
- in school we only write for the one grader (usually the profess0r)
so... we learn to write for this audience of one (who knows more then us and hase no instrumental interest in what the report contains)

transition into the work place...
- it is easier to write a report for your own supervisor (no matter who uses it)

Audience components and Problems they pose:
to write a a report-
1st) understand how your audience poses a problem
2nd) analyze your audience in order to be able to design a report with optimum solution

*you must realize who your audiences are as related to the purpose and content of your report.
who is the ''who"?
"who" involves: - the specific operational function of the persons reading the report
- educational and business backgrounds

3 types of audiences along communication paths:
-horizontal
-vertical
-external

ex. figure 1, pg 173 - give an example of each.

-important to realize which path your report will travel
-important reports usually have complex audiences
- vertical, horizontal, and external

horizontal problems:
ex) systems engineer & naval architect
different understandings due to different technical understanding from different education and training
*also will have different concerns: budget, production, or contract obligations

verticle problems:
complexity: differences are magnified, horizontal reports have horizonatl audience components als.

external users:
differenting features especially involving need and value
- external audience juges an entire organization on the basis of the writer's report.
ex) annual reports



globalization and the reduction of communication barriers through satellite and fiber obtic cables have extended most corporations and organizations communication paths across the globe ex outsourcing
which can lead to many problems

A Method for Systematic Audience Analysis

Problems with:

the horizontal, vertical, and external concept of organization (is not helpful)

1st, the writer does not view from the outside tht tootal communication system modeled bye the company organization chart. He is w/in the system, so the view is always relative.

2nd, the conventional outsider's view does not yield sufficiently detailed information about the report audiences

3rd, the outsider's view does not haelp much to clarify athe specific routes of communication, as determined by audience needs, which an indivudual report will follow.

Solution:

prepare an egocentric organization chart to identify indvidual report readers, characterizing these readres, and classifying them to establish priorities

*this system should yield the information the writer must have to design a report effectively

Difference b/w egocentric organization chart and convential organization chart

1st) Egocenter - identifies specific individuals rather than complex organizational units.

2nd) - categorizes people in terms of theri proximity to the report writer rather than in terms of their hierarchial relationship to the report wrtier. - readers are not identified as organizationally superior, inferior, or equal to the writer but rather as near or distant from the writer.

pg 177

four degrees of distance-->

-Audiences in own group, (those who the writer associates w/ daily such as in the same project group)

-Audienes in close proximity to your group, (those in other offices with normal contact and interaction)

-Audiences elsewhere in the organization, (some distance but still in the same organization such as distant mgt, public relation, sales, legal department, production, purchasing)

-Audiences outside the organization. (may work for the same company but in another city/division)

*ex) pg 178 Chemical Engineer

you can see the difference in the operational converns b/w levels

2nd Step of audience analysis:

- systematic characterization of each person identified in the egocentric organization chart.

how?

in terms of operational, objective, & personal characteristics

operational--> Identify operational charactersitics for a person affected by your report

- identify significant differences b/w roles

- professional vlaues

- time, concern, and attitudes - these will effect the reactions to your report

objective characteriistics--> specific relevant background data about the person

personal characteristics--> note personal names, age, and characteristics that could impact your report

Classify Audiences in Terms of how They Will Use Your Report pg 181

-primary audiences - who make diecions or act on the basis of the information a report contains.

-secondary auidences - who are affected by the decisions and actions

-immediate audiences - who route the report or transmit the information it contains.

What to Report - Dodge

Engineering reports- define all the problems, set forth the objectives, give the reasons for doing the work, then follow with conclusions and end with the recommendations*The writer of a report for management should write at a technical level suitable for a reader whose educational and experience background is in a field different from his ownManagement Responsibilities1) Define the project and required reports2) Provide proper perspective for the project and the required reporting3) See that effective reports are submitted on time4) See that the reports are properly distributed*4 step conference method: beginning, completion of investigation, after report is outlined and after the report is written

Christian K. Arnold: The Writing of Abstracts

*most important part of the paper-provides the specialist in the field with enough info about the report to permit him to decide whether he could read it with profit and it provides the administrator or executive with enough knowledge about what has been done in the study or project and what results to satisfy most of his administrative needs1) your abstract much include enough specific information about the project or study to satisfy most of the administrative needs of a busy executive

2) must be a self-contained unit, a complete report-in-miniature3) must be short4) must be written in fluent, easy-to-read prose5) must be consistent in tone and emphases with the report paper, but it does not need to follow the arrangement, wording, or proportion of the original6) should make the widest possible use of abbreviations and numerals, but it must not conain any tables or illustrations

Part IV - Harty

pg. 167

Part 4
_________________________________________

Reports and Other Longer Documents:

What does the word report really mean?
-its just a generic term for a variety of documents that vary in form and purpose

What are the some purposes reports could have?
-purely informative
-argumentative
-persuasive
-analyze information/draw conclusions
-make recommendations

What are some forms reports could take?
-simple check lists
-interoffice memos and e-mails
-letter to clients
-full-blown documents that are the results of much time and effort

Distinguish b/w formal vs. informal report:
Formal--> -generally follow a multi-part format
-used to present the results of a detailed project
format:-cover letter or memo of transmittal attached to bound document
consisting of: an abstract, table of contents, glossary, an intro, a detailed discussion of all aspects of the topic, a set of conclusions and recommendations, and pages of attachments.

Informal--> tend to be shorter
format:-less complex,
consisting of: essential items (intro, discussion, conclusion, and maybe a list of recommendations

Goal to be USEFUL (action-oriented)
how can writer ensure their reports are useful?
-take some kind of process approach that they would use when writing any other business or technical document.
-plan their reports carefully from the start
-to stick to their intended purpose
-analyze your audience
why?
- the length of reports can be intimidating

what are some kinds of audiences that tech. writers address?
Thomas Pearsall Audience Analysis for Technical Writing (1969)
- the layperson
- the executive
- the expert
- the technician
- the operator
What must a a report writer take into account if they want to be effective?
-each type of audience has a different background & set of needs
-an expert is not going to need information that is "common knowlege" to himself, he wants a report to focus on telling him something he dosen't already know.
-use abstaracts and visual aids allow you to be effective to many of different degrees of expertise.

what is are proposals
are a simple specialized report with the primary purpose to persuade readers to do something
common examples?
- sales letters
- requests for adjustments
types?
- internal
aimed at changing poplicies and procedures w/in an organization
ex) bill
- external
documents seeking grants or funding thus tend to be more complex

Reading Part 3: Business and Technial Correspondence

Talking points

how as email affected our lives?
-personal
-school
-work
what are some problems with email?
- ettiquette? whats right?
- shortcuts?
- so easy (oversend)

How tone is lost in writen communication
-my tone is often miscommunicated. When I IM i can put littly smiley faces and lol but in email, memos, and letters these are not appropriate.



Business and Tech. Correspondence:

2 traditional forms:
- letter - went out
- memo - went in
New Form
- email

David Lewis

Making your correspondence get results

-letters, memos and emails
1) Write for him, not to him
2) Personalize your letters
3) Mastering Tone (your personality)
4) Write (more) the way you talk-

Allan A. Glatthorn

"I have some bad news for you"

1) The successful manager is people sensitive and able to empathize with others
2) Remember that bad news is best delivered face to face
3) Remember that everyone values honesty and forthrightness

Indirect Message of Bad News
Thanks-->Because-->Sorry-->Thanks
-you want further contact with the petitioner
-you want to project the image of a caring individual
-you believe that the petitioner won't be able to handle a more direct statement

Direct Message of Bad News
Thanks-->Sorry-->Because-->Thanks
-you want to slam the door shut, discouraging any other request from that petitioner
-you want to project an image of toughness and directness
-you are addressing an individual who prefers forthrightness and equates indirectness with softness or dishonesty

Harold K. Mintz

How to Write Better Memos

Organization should ensure answers to three basic questions concerning its subject:
1) What are the facts?
2) What do they mean?
3) What do we do now?
*organization is imortant in grabbing reader's attention

John S. Fielden and Ronald E. Dulek

How to Use Bottom-Line Writing in Corporate Communications

length and efficeinecy of the memos plays a role or problem-

the key to it all is comprehension time
Principle 1: State your purpose first unless there are overriding reasons not to do so
Principle 2: State your purpose first, even if you believe your readers need a briefing before they can fully understand the purpose of your communication
Principle 3: Present information in order of its importance to the reader
Principle 4: Put information of dubious utility or questionable importance to the reader into an appendix or attachment
Principle 5: In persuasive situations, where do you not know how your reader will react to what you ask for, state your request at the start
Principle 6: Think twice before being direct in negative messages upward*we have been raised to be indirect, direct reactions are looked to as rude and inappropriate

Janis Fisher Chan

Email: Presenting a Professional Image

*use active, concise, specific language and plain English that communicate clearly and accurately
*write grammatically correct sentences that convey complete thoughts and flow smoothly
*use gender-neutral language when possible-use plural instead of singular pronouns-eliminate the pronoun altogether-speak directly to your reader-structure the sentence so you can use "who"
*avoid common errors of punctuation

Problem Statment Structures

Problem StatementWhats is the context of problem?What is the problem?How are you going to solve the problem?

2)
Clemson fans on football game days want to experience the best possible football tailgating experience. More then likely they are having an amazing time tailgating because its hard not to at Clemson. There are however many things they can do to enhance their tailgating experience. We will explain through a website how fans can go about enhancing their tailgating experience through proper planning in the areas of arriving at your tailgate spot, setup, food, and tailgating activities. By using this website all Clemson tailgaters will be able to benefit.

1)
Many Clemson fans believe they know the best way to tailgate on game days in the fall. Most though do not realize the possibilities to enhance their tailgating experience in Clemson. They need to know the essentials of parking, food and drink, as well as game day rituals in order to maximize their experience. We will provide Clemson fans of all experience level a website that they can access from anywhere in the world to find anything from parking tips to the best yard games around. Even those fans who have been tailgating in Clemson for years will be able to benefit from our Clemson game day website.

3)
Clemson fans from all experience levels are facing increased regulations on game day tailgating. With IPTAY bearing down on their game day guidelines and taking away what used to be student tailgating spots, both students and alumni are not happy. Fans are faced with increased traffic delays, students lack no general student tailgate areas and all are losing out on the Clemson game day tailgating tradition. With our website we will be able to offer advice to alleviate some of these problems. Not only will we provide parking maps and other viable tailgating spaces for students we will also list the necessaties of creating the perfect tailgate experience.